Chemistry

https://clep.collegeboard.org/exam/chemistry

Structure of Matter

Atomic theory and atomic structure

• Evidence for the atomic theory
• Atomic masses; determination by chemical and physical means
• Atomic number and mass number; isotopes and mass spectroscopy
• Electron energy levels: atomic spectra, quantum numbers, atomic orbitals
• Periodic relationships, including, for example, atomic radii, ionization energies, electron affinities, oxidation states

Chemical bonding

• Binding forces
• Types: covalent, ionic, metallic, macromolecular (or network), dispersion, hydrogen bonding
• Relationships to structure and to properties
• Polarity of bonds, electronegativities
• Geometry of molecules, ions, and coordination complexes: structural isomerism, dipole moments of molecules, relation of properties to structure
• Molecular models
• Valence bond theory; hybridization of orbitals, resonance, sigma and pi bonds
• Other models, for example, molecular orbital
• Nuclear chemistry: nuclear equations, half-lives, and radioactivity; chemical applications

19%
States of Matter

Gases

• Laws of ideal gases; equations of state for an ideal gas
• Kinetic-molecular theory
  • Interpretation of ideal gas laws on the basis of this theory
  • The mole concept; Avogadro's number
  • Dependence of kinetic energy of molecules on temperature: Boltzmann distribution
  • Deviations from ideal gas laws

Liquids and solids

• Liquids and solids from the kineticmolecular viewpoint
• Phase diagrams of one-component systems
• Changes of state, critical phenomena
• Crystal structure

Solutions

• Types of solutions and factors affecting solubility
• Methods of expressing concentration
• Colligative properties; for example, Raoult's law
• Effect of interionic attraction on colligative properties and solubility

12%
Reaction Types

Formation and cleavage of covalent bonds

• Acid-base reactions; concepts of Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, and Lewis; amphoterism
• Reactions involving coordination complexes

Precipitation reactions

Oxidation-reduction reactions

• Oxidation number
• The role of the electron in oxidation-reduction
• Electrochemistry; electrolytic cells, standard half-cell potentials, prediction of the direction of redox reactions, effect of concentration changes

10%
Equations and Stoichiometry

• Ionic and molecular species present in chemical systems; net-ionic equations
• Stoichiometry: mass and volume relations with emphasis on the mole concept
• Balancing of equations, including those for redox reactions

7%
Equilibrium

Concept of dynamic equilibrium, physical and chemical; LeChâtelier's principle; equilibrium constants

Quantitative treatment

• Equilibrium constants for gaseous reactions in terms of both molar concentrations and partial pressure (Kc , Kp)
• Equilibrium constants for reactions in solutions
  • Constants for acids and bases; pK; pH
  • Solubility-product constants and their application to precipitation and the dissolution of slightly soluble compounds
  • Constants for complex ions
  • Common ion effect; buffers

4%
Kinetics

• Concept of rate of reaction
• Order of reaction and rate constant: their determination from experimental data
• Effect of temperature change on rates
• Energy of activation; the role of catalysts
• The relationship between the rate-determining step and a mechanism

5%
Thermodynamics

State functions

• First law: heat of formation; heat of reaction; change in enthalpy, Hess's law; heat capacity; heats of vaporization and fusion
• Second law: free energy of formation; free energy of reaction; dependence of change in free energy on enthalpy and entropy changes
• Relationship of change in free energy to equilibrium constants and electrode potentials

14%
Descriptive Chemistry

The accumulation of certain specific facts of chemistry is essential to enable students to comprehend the development of principles and concepts, to demonstrate applications of principles, to relate fact to theory and properties to structure, and to develop an understanding of systematic nomenclature that facilitates communication. The following areas are normally included on the examination:

• Chemical reactivity and products of chemical reactions
• Relationships in the periodic table: horizontal, vertical, and diagonal
• Chemistry of the main groups and transition elements, including typical examples of each
• Organic chemistry, including such topics as functional groups and isomerism (may be treated as a separate unit or as exemplary material in other areas, such as bonding)

9%
Experimental Chemistry

Some experiments are based on laboratory experiments widely performed in general chemistry and ask about the equipment used, observations made, calculations performed, and interpretation of the results. The questions are designed to provide a measure of understanding of the basic tools of chemistry and their applications to simple chemical systems.